Thunderbolts Forum v3.0

According to experimentation, and theory, when an electron (-) and a positron (+) interact they “annihilate”. The energy of their masses then converts into two Gamma Ray photons which move in opposite directions having energy of 511 keV. Interestingly, the 511 keV Line naturally occurs in thunderstorms as seen via the latest and greatest Gamma Ray-Terrestrial Electron Beam “storm chaser”: The Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor (ASIM).

After ten years in development ASIM was successfully attached to the Columbus Module of the ISS in June 2018. Working in conjunction with an array of ground based VLF monitors known as the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) the ASIM apparatus does not need to be directly over a thunderstorm in order to get results. In this next document only three months later Sept 2018 ASIM detects its first "Terrestrial Electron Beam" (TEB). With WWLLN confirming that, on the date of detection, there were no lighting activity directly below the ISS; the question is: How did they do it?

MXGS, one of the modules aboard ASIM, “hard radiation” sensor was engineered with “four trigger time windows” of 300us, 1ms, 3ms, 25ms. The longer 25ms window is specifically for detection of TEBs. This is somewhat analogous to the shutter speed on a standard camera. The longer the shutter speed, the greater the exposure, the more light that can enter. Since there were neither storm nor lightning below the ISS where did the “electron beam” come from??

SPOILER: During a storm when electrons and positrons are ‘generated’, or ‘freed’, some of them are absorbed in the surrounding air and clouds of the parent storm. This can generate secondary avalanches, or cascades, of other charged particles. However, some of the electrons and positrons can escape into space and follow Earth’s magnetic field “lines” taking helical paths around same as they propagate. There are only “a few minutes” of travel time over a distance in order for electrons and positions traveling along Earth’s magnetic field to trigger the MXGS detection “windows” at an ISS altitude of 45km.

Using a prior model and software code in conjunction with ISS position along one of Earth’s magnetic field “lines” WWLLN confirmed the geographic location of a storm which had four lightning events occurring in the appropriate time frame. And there it was; the “foot print” of one of Earth’s magnetic field lines situated in the midst of a storm. There were four lightning discharge events in that storm that occurred in the appropriate window. Two of the four lighting events occurring in that storm occurred within 1us of each. This suggested that these two events (of the four total) were basically two flashes of the same lightning discharge. The ISS was situated along the very same magnetic field line. It was a marvelous match (Figure 3). See:

We report the first Terrestrial Electron Beam detected by the Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor. It happened on 16 September 2018. The Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor Modular X and Gamma ray Sensor recorded a 2 ms long event, with a softer spectrum than typically recorded for Terrestrial Gamma ray Flashes (TGFs). The lightning discharge associated to this event was found in the World Wide Lightning Location Network data, close to the northern footpoint of the magnetic field line that intercepts the International Space Station location. Imaging from a GOES-R geostationary satellite shows that the source TGF was produced close to an overshooting top of a thunderstorm. Monte-Carlo simulations were performed to reproduce the observed light curve and energy spectrum. The event can be explained by the secondary electrons and positrons produced by the TGF (i.e., the Terrestrial Electron Beam), even if about 3.5% to 10% of the detected counts may be due to direct TGF photons. A source TGF with a Gaussian angular distribution with standard deviation between 20.6◦ and 29.8◦ was found to reproduce the measurement. Assuming an isotropic angular distribution within a cone, compatible half angles are between 30.6◦ and 41.9◦, in agreement with previous studies. The number of required photons for the source TGF could be estimated for various assumption of the source (altitude of production and angular distribution) and is estimated between 1017.2 and 1018.9 photons, that is, compatible with the current consensus.- The First Terrestrial Electron Beam Observed by the Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor: D. Sarria , P. Kochkin , N. Østgaard, et al

After assessing the recorded energy spectrum of the event (Figure 5 inset) The 511 keV Line associated to electron-positron annihilation is present. As known, Gamma Rays, X-rays, Ionospheric Ultraviolet etc have been detected with lightning for quite some time now. Why is that interesting?

This is interesting because The 511 keV Line has also been detected near the galactic center of the Milky Way as both an extended “steady source” over a larger area of its disc and bulge and also as a “variable point source” later associated with SagA* in subsequent papers. See:

A Maximum Entropy Map of the 511 keV Positron Annihilation Line Emission Distribution Near the Galactic Center: L. X. CHENG,  M. LEVENTHAL, D. M. SMITH et al 1997 (Free)

Google Search: Galactic 511 keV positron annihilation emission

Despite the age of the above doc (chosen for its brevity) notice the radioactive nuclei mentioned as potential positron sources. Comparatively, on Earth, if I'm not mistaken, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon can also undergo this dynamic and emit positrons and subsequently those positrons may interact with electrons to emit 511 keV emission. Notice also in the above doc the uncertainty with regard to what might cause the variable component which is sometimes not seen in other studies. Most interesting is the last sentence in the paragraph following Fig 2 where the suggestion of association of a radio counterpart exhibiting “jetlike” features (1E 1740.7-2942) with “dense molecular cloud G0.86-0.08”. It's possible to assert that such correlations and “hot spot” variations could be subsumed as ‘cosmic lightning amongst molecular clouds’. This would seem to point to 'environmental interaction' (clouds,"virgin air") on Earth as a smaller scale version of same - different chemistry; but same subatomic relationship.

The reason for the comparison between Galactic scale and terrestrial gamma rays and electron beams relative to thunderstorms, lightning, and ASIM is because currently, the source, and/or or sources, of Celestial Gamma Rays are not well understood either. Over the course of its observing time this is hopefully something that ASIM might be able to shed light on (pardon the unintended pun).

Hopefully more info to follow.

Very nice catch Solar.

Here is a POTD on the gamma rays detected above lightning storms, around 7-9 miles up in the atmosphere.

Gamma Gamma Hey
Nov 16, 2009

Gamma ray frequency electromagnetic radiation has been detected in terrestrial lightning strokes.

On June 11, 2008, NASA launched the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope (formerly GLAST) on a mission to identify the location of intergalactic gamma ray bursters. Otherwise known as GRBs, they generate intense energies detectable from millions of light-years away. Since gamma rays are unable to penetrate the ozone layer (except those with the highest energies), however, Fermi is in a low orbit that takes it out of Earth's atmosphere.

According to a recent press release, scientists have been confronted with yet another surprising find: 17 gamma ray flashes have been detected in lightning from terrestrial thunderstorms. As the team analyzing data from the satellite noted, the gamma ray frequency "could have been produced only by the decay of energetic positrons, the antimatter equivalent of electrons."

As Karl Popper once observed, though: "No matter how many instances of white swans we may have observed, this does not justify the conclusion that all swans are white."

An electric discharge in plasma creates a tube-like magnetic sheath along its axis called a "double layer." If enough current flows through the circuit, the sheath will glow, sometimes forming other sheaths within it.

Double layers form when positive charges build up in one region of a plasma cloud and negative charges build up nearby. A powerful electric field appears between the two regions, which accelerates charged particles. The electric charges spiral in the magnetic fields, emitting x-rays, extreme ultraviolet, and sometimes gamma rays.

As physicist and Electric Universe advocate Wal Thornhill wrote: "In the Electric Universe model, there is no antimatter forming antiparticles. An electron and a positron are composed of the same charged sub-particles in different conformations. They come together to form a stable neutrino, emitting most of their orbital energies in the process. They do not annihilate each other. In that sense a neutrino embodies both the electron and the positron. It can have no antiparticle. The bookmakers would be wise not to bet on the Standard Model of particle physics."

The electromagnetic field beneath a thunderstorm increases (up to 10,000 volts per meter) and stores energy from the surrounding environment like a capacitor. A "wind" of charged particles blows toward the storm. In other words, a current flows into the cloud base. Surrounding air is pulled along with the current flow and creates powerful updrafts that sometimes rise into the stratosphere.

Lightning is a plasma and creates a powerful electromagnetic pulse across a wide range of frequencies as it releases the charge build up in a storm cloud. Thunderheads may be several thousand cubic kilometers in extent, yet all of their stored electrical energy travels down a discharge channel no wider than a man's waist. The z-pinch effect inside a lightning bolt's vortex causes rapid ionization, as well as particle acceleration fast enough to generate gamma rays.

Stephen Smith

We *know* for a fact that electrical discharges are responsible for such emission in planetary atmospheres, yet the mainstream sees the same signals from the solar atmosphere and irrationally claims "magnetic reconnection did it". Bleh!

Lightning research is progressing nicely. Most significant are experiments and assessments of precursor activity before the emission of the actual lightning bolt and optical light. This is where the focus has been since at least 2013 with work from Japan’s GROWTH project, WWLLN, with ground based VLF, gamma ray detectors, and electric field monitors, along ASIM - the later of which has finer resolution than even Fermi GRT. All of these together are trying to discern the nature of precursors events with remarkable progress.

The majority of theories, from lightning research on up to interpretations of astrophysical phenomena, put forth ‘external influences’ such as cosmic rays, pulsars, X-ray binaries, supernovae etc as being possible source(s) of the initial “seed” gamma rays. However, over the last whopping 50 years no one can seem to find enough gamma ray and/or Xray emitting sources to accent for the 511 keV line (B+ decay).

To express it in terms recognizable here, current lightning research efforts are focused on what might be called ‘dark mode’ precursor processes occurring BEFORE the appearance of optical light and/or the lightning bolt itself. Note: none of the lightning researchers and/or published works use that term. I use it to simply convey a relatable expression to forum members.

Gamma rays, Xrays, electric and magnetic fields are creating what one ASIM paper refers to as “TGF structures”. These are multiple moments of gamma ray emission and “current pulses” (sometimes referred to as EMP) occurring within microseconds to milliseconds of each other BEFORE the appearance of optical light and the lightning bolt itself.

When realizing that all of those electrons comprising the lightning channel itself MUST come from somewhere; from whence do they come?? Earth’s air is by far composed of approximately 78% Nitrogen (337.0 nm), 21% Oxygen (777.4 nm), traces of Argon, and Carbon Dioxide. This is what is meant by (the ionization of) “virgin air” in some documents.

Relational Tool: Not wishing to turn this thread into a Safire topic. However, there is a useful moment to convey some analogous sense of the detections of gamma ray & electric field induced activities (“structures”), occurring ‘in the dark’, before the emission of optical light and the lightning bolt. The useful analog occurs at 32:00 in the following video:

“What’s going on win a plasma environment that’s under tension but it's not discharging? That’s an important question. Even though it was on our docket for exploration; when we found it, we weren’t looking for it.- Special Feature: SAFIRE PROJECT 2019 UPDATE

Having crawled through a variety of papers trying to put together the ‘nucleo-electro-chemical’ relationships (an obvious neologism I’ve created out of “virgin air”) it was difficult to coalesce the various detections, and theories to go along with my admitted conjecture that perhaps a “Dense Plasma Focus” (aka “Bidirectional Bipolar Leader”) resulting from ‘electro-static discharge’ between storm regions of different electric potential might precede and/or induce the emission of "seed" gamma rays. I finally came across this next HIGHLY recommended print and study worthy document with astounding coverage of multiple precursor functions leading the authors to conclude that PhotoNuclear Reactions are occurring in thunderstorms and it even (albeit briefly) mentions these observations in space:

Lightning and thunderclouds are natural particle accelerators1. Avalanches of relativistic runaway electrons, which develop in electric fields within thunderclouds2,3, emit bremsstrahlung γ-rays. These γ-rays have been detected by ground-based observatories4,5,6,7,8,9, by airborne detectors10 and as terrestrial γ-ray flashes from space 10,11,12,13,14. The energy of the γ-rays is sufficiently high that they can trigger atmospheric photonuclear reactions10,15,16,17,18,19 that produce neutrons and eventually positrons via β+ decay of the unstable radioactive isotopes, most notably 13N, which is generated via 14N + γ → 13N + n, where γ denotes a photon and n a neutron. However, this reaction has hitherto not been observed conclusively, despite increasing observational evidence of neutrons 7,20,21 and positrons 10,22 that are presumably derived from such reactions. Here we report ground-based observations of neutron and positron signals after lightning. During a thunderstorm on 6 February 2017 in Japan, a γ-ray flash with a duration of less than one millisecond was detected at our monitoring sites 0.5–1.7 kilometres away from the lightning. The subsequent γ-ray afterglow subsided quickly, with an exponential decay constant of 40–60 milliseconds, and was followed by prolonged line emission at about 0.511 megaelectronvolts, which lasted for a minute. The observed decay timescale and spectral cutoff at about 10 megaelectronvolts of the γ-ray afterglow are well explained by de-excitation γ-rays from nuclei excited by neutron capture. The centre energy of the prolonged line emission corresponds to electron–positron annihilation, providing conclusive evidence of positrons being produced after the lightning. - Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge - Teruaki Enoto, Yuuki Wada, Yoshihiro Furuta et al 2017

Pure Awesomeness happening before you see it.

Solar wrote: ↑Mon Nov 23, 2020 5:53 pm Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge - Teruaki Enoto, Yuuki Wada, Yoshihiro Furuta et al 2017

Thank you for posting this. Very interesting research in an area that I haven't done much reading. The Nature paper is a good starting point for exploring current research.

Higgsy wrote: ↑Tue Nov 24, 2020 5:37 pm

Solar wrote: ↑Mon Nov 23, 2020 5:53 pm Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge - Teruaki Enoto, Yuuki Wada, Yoshihiro Furuta et al 2017

Thank you for posting this. Very interesting research in an area that I haven't done much reading. The Nature paper is a good starting point for exploring current research.

You're very welcome Higgsy.

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Wed Nov 18, 2020 9:08 pm We *know* for a fact that electrical discharges are responsible for such emission in planetary atmospheres...

There is news.

It may not always be the case that the ‘electrical discharge' causes Gamma Rays’. Observations have also detected cases where instead Gamma Rays appear to induce the discharge. Here is 2019 article concerning this observation:

Thunderbolt of lightning, gamma rays exciting (Shortcut: scroll to graphic at bottom)

The previous Photonuclear paper from GROWTH project used data collected from storm occurring 6 February 2017. Here is Open Access to subsequent 2019 follow up paper using data collected from storm occurring 9 January 2018 where it appears that Gamma Rays preceded lightning discharge:

Two types of high-energy events have been detected from thunderstorms. One is “terrestrial gamma-ray flashes” (TGFs), sub-millisecond emissions coinciding with lightning discharges. The other is minute-lasting “gamma-ray glows”. Although both phenomena are thought to originate from relativistic runaway electron avalanches in strong electric fields, the connection between them is not well understood. Here we report unequivocal simultaneous detection of a gamma-ray glow termination and a downward TGF, observed from the ground. During a winter thunderstorm in Japan on 9 January 2018, our detectors caught a gamma-ray glow, which moved for ~100 s with ambient wind, and then abruptly ceased with a lightning discharge. Simultaneously, the detectors observed photonuclear reactions triggered by a downward TGF, whose radio pulse was located within ~1 km from where the glow ceased. It is suggested that the highly-electrified region producing the glow was related to the initiation of the downward TGF. - Gamma-ray glow preceding downward terrestrial gamma-ray flash -
Yuuki Wada, Teruaki Enoto, Yoshitaka Nakamura, Yoshihiro Furuta, Takayuki Yuasa et al

Gamma Ray Flash: submillisecond emission, usually associated with large amplitude Initial Pulse which has gone by several names (EIP, EMP, Current Pulse etc)

Gamma Ray Glow: aka "TGF Afterglow" can last for over one minute. The duration of this feature allows it to be 'tracked' as storm clouds move under the influence of winds. This is what was observed in this case. There have been previous observations of the abrupt termination of Gamma Ray Glow followed by lightning discharge.

- This paper reveals an area that is fascinating; the low frequency "precursor pulses" marked by stars in Fig. 1 (b)
- Those same four or so precursor pulses are depicted in Fig. 3 (a) occurring before t=0 leading up to the large amplitude pulse
- Fig 3 (d) 'zooms in' on those same four or so precursor pulses leading up to the large amplitude pulse
____________________________

These phenomena, Lightning Bolt & Gamma Rays, can be overlapped. I prefer use of the word "coincident" by the GROWTH team, other works will use "simultaneous" because that's as far as the research can 'see' at this time. Especially since two different manifestations have been observed to occur. Nonetheless, TGF and/or TGG can occur simultaneously and non-simultaneous. Still smoldering hot off the press for 2020 here is open access to:

Terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) are a class of enigmatic electrical discharges in the Earth’s atmosphere. In this study, we analyze an unprecedentedly large dataset comprised of 2188 TGFs whose signatures were simultaneously measured using space- and ground-based detectors over a five-year period. The Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) on board the Fermi spacecraft provided the energetic radiation measurements. Radio frequency (RF) measurements were obtained from the Global Lightning Dataset (GLD360). Here we show the existence of two categories of TGFs − those that were accompanied by quasi-simultaneous electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) detected by the GLD360 and those without such simultaneous EMPs. We examined, for the first time, the dependence of the TGF-associated EMP-peak-amplitude on the horizontal offset distance between the Fermi spacecraft and the TGF source. TGFs detected by the GBM with sources at farther horizontal distances are expected to be intrinsically brighter and were found to be associated with EMPs having larger median peak-amplitudes. This provides independent evidence that the EMPs and TGFs are produced by the same phenomenon, rather than the EMPs being from “regular” lightning in TGF-producing thunderstorms. -
Gamma-Ray and Radio-Frequency Radiation from Thunderstorms Observed from Space and Ground B. G. Mailyan, A. Nag, J. R. Dwyer et al

"not all TGFs are accompanied by EMPs that are detected by LLS". Which means *thus far* even for the TGF's associated with EMP's that LLS can detect as occurring simultaneously; not all of them are accompanied by large amplitude EMP pulses. This makes the findings of the previous paper from GROWTH Project where it appears that sometimes Gamma Rays might induce lighting discharge quite interesting.

Solar wrote: ↑Sun Nov 29, 2020 5:50 pm

Higgsy wrote: ↑Tue Nov 24, 2020 5:37 pm

Solar wrote: ↑Mon Nov 23, 2020 5:53 pm Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge - Teruaki Enoto, Yuuki Wada, Yoshihiro Furuta et al 2017

Thank you for posting this. Very interesting research in an area that I haven't done much reading. The Nature paper is a good starting point for exploring current research.

You're very welcome Higgsy.

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Wed Nov 18, 2020 9:08 pm We *know* for a fact that electrical discharges are responsible for such emission in planetary atmospheres...

There is news.

It may not always be the case that the ‘electrical discharge' causes Gamma Rays’. Observations have also detected cases where instead Gamma Rays appear to induce the discharge. Here is 2019 article concerning this observation:

It seems like the two are related processes, but the gamma ray part could also simply be resistance to in 'dusty' plasma that is heating up the plasma before it enters into a full blown visual discharge. I wouldn't assume that electric current is not in any way responsible for the gamma ray emissions.

The point is that spheres in space "naturally" produce electrical discharges and gamma rays in their atmospheres, particularly thicker atmospheres and larger spheres.

There's no "naturally" occurring "magnetic reconnection' process that emits gamma rays here on Earth.

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Mon Nov 30, 2020 4:36 pm

Solar wrote: ↑Mon Nov 23, 2020 5:53 pm
There is news.

It may not always be the case that the ‘electrical discharge' causes Gamma Rays’. Observations have also detected cases where instead Gamma Rays appear to induce the discharge. Here is 2019 article concerning this observation:

It seems like the two are related processes, ...

Yes. This is what all of the detections are showing. Sometimes an EMP, or Current Pulse, precedes the emission of Gamma Rays. Sometimes that Gamma Ray Glow (scattering) can precede the lightning discharge. Sometimes a TGF can be detected but no associated EMP was detected. They are related.

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Mon Nov 30, 2020 4:36 pm but the gamma ray part could also simply be resistance to in 'dusty' plasma that is heating up the plasma before it enters into a full blown visual discharge. I wouldn't assume that electric current is not in any way responsible for the gamma ray emissions.

None of the referenced works have mentioned the plasma phase.

Due to the observation of three manifestations by the two different research teams where:

1: Precursor Pulses---->EMP---->TGF---->Scattering--->Gamma Ray Glow--->Abrupt Termination of Gamma Ray Glow---->Lightning Discharge (GROWTH Project)

2: Gamma Ray Glow (Scattering) ---->Abrupt Termination of Gamma Ray Glow---->Lightning Discharge (GROWTH Project)

3: a) Simultaneous EMP & TGF b) Non-Simultaneous EMP & TGF (delayed) c) TGF but no EMP [Gamma-Ray and Radio-Frequency Radiation from Thunderstorms Observed from Space and Ground]

"The question remains as to why some TGFs are not accompanied by LLS-detectable EMPs" : from Gamma-Ray and Radio-Frequency Radiation from Thunderstorms Observed from Space and Ground B. G. Mailyan, A. Nag, J. R. Dwyer et al

No one in either reference assumed that there were no electric currents involved. Peak current data and/or eV information carries throughout both of those documents in spades, especially the reference with Dwyer. The authors simply correlated and reported the results of the detectors, some interesting Monte Carlo work was done, The "Methods" sections are also quite nice. Explanation is given towards the end of the second paragraph in the Dwyer et al reference as to reasons, or causes, that some EMP's might not be detectable. It remains to be seen how data from ASIM might be helpful in the not too distant future for specific cases and definitely over the long run of its observation campaign.

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Mon Nov 30, 2020 4:36 pm The point is that spheres in space "naturally" produce electrical discharges and gamma rays in their atmospheres, particularly thicker atmospheres and larger spheres.

Research is interested in 'How' that occurs all the way down to the neutrino; not just the observation that it does. Personally, i like fleeting "Di-positronium" as the last step before neutrino emission

Michael Mozina wrote: ↑Mon Nov 30, 2020 4:36 pm There's no "naturally" occurring "magnetic reconnection' process that emits gamma rays here on Earth.

None of the reference material in this thread mentions that topic. None of the documents that I will hopefully get to post mention it either.

Next document(s) for your reading pleasure:

Article: Scientist unveil new discoveries about gamma ray flashes coming from thunderstorms 10 December 2019 (links to papers at bottom)

Observed sequence detected by ASIM per the article:
1- “The optical (visible light) pulse comes after the TGF”
2- “TGFs are created immediately in front of and before a pulse of electricity shoots through the leader of charged air that becomes a lightning bolt,”

PAPER: Open Access

The Atmosphere‐Space Interactions Monitor (ASIM) was launched to the International Space Station on 2 April 2018. The ASIM payload consists of two main instruments, the Modular X‐ray and Gamma‐ray Sensor (MXGS) for imaging and spectral analysis of Terrestrial Gamma‐ray Flashes (TGFs) and the Modular Multi‐spectral Imaging Array for detection, imaging, and spectral analysis of Transient Luminous Events and lightning. ASIM is the first space mission designed for simultaneous observations of Transient Luminous Events, TGFs, and optical lightning. During the first 10 months of operation (2 June 2018 to 1 April 2019) the MXGS has observed 217 TGFs. In this paper we report several unprecedented measurements and new scientific results obtained by ASIM during this period: (1) simultaneous TGF observations by Fermi Gamma‐ray Burst Monitor and ASIM MXGS revealing the very good detection capability of ASIM MXGS and showing substructures in the TGF, (2) TGFs and Elves produced during the same lightning flash and even simultaneously have been observed, (3) first imaging of TGFs giving a unique source location, (4) strong statistical support for TGFs being produced during the upward propagation of a leader just before a large current pulse heats up the channel and emits a strong optical pulse, and (5) the t50 duration of TGFs observed from space is shorter than previously reported First 10 Months of TGF Observations by ASIM - N. Østgaard  T. Neubert  V. Reglero  K. Ullaland et al

The only 'definite' sequence that that has been consistently detected is that TGF's occur before the emission of optical light.

Section 3.2.1 Simultaneous TGF Observation From Two Platforms: along with Figure 3 shows interesting detection capabilities between ASIM, Fermi, and WLLN

Section 3.2.3 TGF and Elve Produced by the Same Lightning Flash: Along with Figure 5 (particularly panel C) shows at t=0 that TGF is "simultaneous" with current pulse. Time is in microseconds. Notice that "weak rise" occurring between -500 - 0 us. This "weak rise" ~0.5-1 ms before the TGF has been observed in all observations and seems to suggest the onset of ionization of Nitrogen and Oxygen. The TGF occurs 10 us before the Elve which occurs further up in the ionosphere at UV 180-240 nm.

Section 3.2.4. The Sequence of TGF and Main Optical Lightning Pulse: things can get slightly confusing here because the authors begin to offer a few interpretations where the "weak rise" precedes the TGF; the TGF then occurs simultaneous with the current pulse, but then this "weak rise" is interpreted as being due to an increase in two 'lightning leader channels' about 1-2 ms before the TGF. This is a case where "the TGF is produced during the leader propagation about 500 us before the onset of a current pulse.".

Further interpretation of the detections are narrowing the occurrence of TGF's occurring 0-320 us "before or at the onset of the current pulse." In 3.2.4. I think it good suggestion that some of the events are the result of leader development and propagation. Its easy to see that things are not nailed down and further assistance from WLLN is going to be necessary. There is a +/-80 us timing uncertainty between the MMIA and MXGS modules. With some detections occurring within so little as 10 us you can see why its going to take a coordinated effort to try and tease the data that might show which comes first between TGF and current pulse. The bottom right corner of every page is a page number. On page number 14,034 the last sentence above Figure 8 states where the team's work was at as of this paper. The detections see:

"Weak rise" ----> TGF's occurring 0-320 us before ----> within 10 us Elve ----> large current pulse ----> then optical pulse. Somewhere in the midst of that sequence a lightning "Leader" is suggested to develop and begin to propagate.

Just sharing a few notes.

Also: The main longstanding theory behind the acceleration of electrons via electric field in thunderstorms accompanied Bremsstrahlung (“breaking” radiation) when those accelerated electrons decelerate as a result of interacting with air molecules) is Relativistic Runaway Electron Avalanche (RREA) or Runaway Breakdown (RB):

A moment of recognition is warranted for the work of C. T. R. Wilson who not only put forth the concept of “runaway” electrons with regard to lightning in 1925, he also put forth “The Global Atmospheric Electrical Circuit”, he apparently predicted sprites in the middle atmosphere, he shared half of the 1927 Nobel Prize with A. H. Compton, and he invented the Cloud Chamber which was used to discover the Positron amongst other things.

Some sixty years after Wilson’s 1925 paper suggesting “runaway” electrons Gurevich et al. [1992] and Gurevich and Zybin [2001] put forth their version with Wilson’s work forming the foundation of same. That is the origin of what is now called Relativistic Runaway Electron Avalanche (RREA).

Point of fact the upward and downward positive and negative ‘vertical currents’ associated with the GEC are called “Wilson Currents”. Out of curiosity I put “Wilson” into the respective search engines of Thunderbolts main website and Holoscience - Mr. Wilson’ work is briefly mentioned on only one Holoscience page.

Here is brief history of Mr. Wilson:

The cloud chamber and CTR Wilson’s legacy to atmospheric science

The Cloud Chamber: Hyperphysics

C.T.R. Wilson Nobel Lecture December 12, 1927: On the Cloud Method of Making Visible Ions and the Tracks of Ionizing Particles

For some reason its fascinating that when theorizing about the interaction of photons with atoms and electrons it were theorized that the interaction might induce the electron to "recoil". As A. H Compton noted in his own Nobel Lecture:

When this theory was first proposed, no electrons of this type were known; but they were discovered by Wilson and Bothe within a few months after their prediction. - Arthur H. Compton: X-rays as a branch of optics Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1927

Evidence for the existence of electrons of this type producing "very short tracks." was appearing in the Wilson Cloud Chamber. Here is very brief article from Letters where A. H Compton and C. T. R. Wilson chime in support of each others work on that topic:

Recoil of Electrons from Scattered X-Rays: A. H. Compton & C.T.R. Wilson Letters to Editor, Nature SEPTEMBER 22, 1923

Per this next short Open Access lightning research paper the detection of “neutron capture” by hydrogen nuclei (protons) in the scintillator which released the characteristic gamma ray signature at 2.223 MeV accompanied by the formation of … deuterium.

Following a lightning strike to a wind turbine in Japan, we have observed a large burst of
neutrons lasting 100 ms with a ground fluence of ~1,000 n cm2, thousands of times greater than the peak neutron flux associated with the largest ground level solar particle event ever observed. This is the first detection of an unequivocal signature of neutrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash, consisting of a 2.223 MeV gamma-ray spectral line from a neutron-capture on hydrogen reaction occurring in our detector, and is shown to be consistent with the production of 1012–1013 photoneutrons from a downward terrestrial gamma ray flash (TGF) at 1.0 km, with a gamma ray brightness typical of upward TGFs observed by satellites. - Gamma Ray Signatures of Neutrons From a Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flash - G. S. Bowers1 , D. M. Smith , G. F. Martinez-McKinney et al 2017

Along with the 511 keV annihilation line, as well as neutron emission, the 2.223 MeV signature of neutron capture may also be present. Both have been detected with terrestrial lightning. Interestingly, both emission lines have also been detected at the Sun during solar flares. Here is brief mention of this observation:

RHESSI Observes 2.2 MeV Line Emission from a Solar Flare

Here also, is what must be the shortest paper I’ve ever seen. The paper was open access when I visited:

We present the first gamma-ray images of a solar flare, obtained with the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) for the X4.8 flare of 2002 July 23. Two rotating modulation collimators (35 & 180 resolution) provided images of the narrow deuterium line at 2.223 MeV formed by thermalization and capture of neutrons produced in energetic ion collisions, the 3.25-6.5 MeV band that includes the prompt de-excitation lines of C and O, and the 0.3 - 0.5 and 0.7-1.4 MeV bands that are dominated by electron-bremsstrahlung. The centroid of the 2.223 MeV image was found to be displaced by ∼20(±6) arcsec from that of the 0.3-0.5 MeV band, implying a difference in acceleration and/or propagation between the accelerated electron and ion populations near the Sun. - First Gamma-Ray Images of a Solar Flare - G. J. Hurford, R. A. Schwartz, S. Krucker et al 2008

Notice the interesting reference to “the narrow deuterium line”. Notice also what the document refers to as the “possibility” that electrons and ions might be accelerated in different directions via DC electric field. Moreover, might there be comparison made with regard to this “delayed” 2.223 MeV emission which apparently occurred after the emission of “prompt” gamma rays occurring ~10s after the electron bremsstrahlung? (Fig 1).

Might the linear ‘timing’ of 511 keV and "delayed" 2.223 MeV in solar flare phenomena have relevance to the linear timing of terrestrial lightning? The timing of events is something that lightning research efforts are trying to decipher. These same signatures manifesting at the sun might make for interesting comparison along that line of reasoning.
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Lastly, here is an example of the precursor glow phase occurring before the manifestation of the actual discharge (and also "abruptly terminating" afterward). The glow may have been the result of a "current pulse" - it may have been precursor ionization necessary in providing electrons for the subsequent discharge, or both. As expressed elsewhere I am very interested in the manifestation called "Bipolar Bidirectional Leader". When watching this next video click the cog in the lower right hand corner and select "Playback speed". Set to 0.25 (slowest). This will allow you to pause at approximately 0.13 seconds and observe not only the progression of the preceding glow but also the appearance of the bidirectional leader at some distance below the glow in less dense "virgin air" and at what may be an interface, or boundary, between different atmospheric 'layers':

A Sprite in Action

Solar wrote: ↑Mon Dec 21, 2020 5:41 pm Per this next short Open Access lightning research paper the detection of “neutron capture” by hydrogen nuclei (protons) in the scintillator which released the characteristic gamma ray signature at 2.223 MeV accompanied by the formation of … deuterium.
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Along with the 511 keV annihilation line, as well as neutron emission, the 2.223 MeV signature of neutron capture may also be present. Both have been detected with terrestrial lightning. Interestingly, both emission lines have also been detected at the Sun during solar flares. Here is brief mention of this observation:

This is interesting as I said before. From the various papers you have linked to I am particularly interested in the detection of positron annihilation and the neutron capture in terrestrial lightning strikes. Of course, we have to be circumspect in drawing parallels between those and solar flares, especially as the coronal density is some 10^13 times less than atmospheric density.

Here also, is what must be the shortest paper I’ve ever seen. The paper was open access when I visited:

Notice the interesting reference to “the narrow deuterium line”. Notice also what the document refers to as the “possibility” that electrons and ions might be accelerated in different directions via DC electric field. Moreover, might there be comparison made with regard to this “delayed” 2.223 MeV emission which apparently occurred after the emission of “prompt” gamma rays occurring ~10s after the electron bremsstrahlung? (Fig 1).

This is a very early imaging of a solar flare in keV to MeV (hard X-ray to gamma ray) energies. There must be more recent appers but I haven't time to look for them now. The signature of neutron capture to form deuterium is not unexpected. Since deuterium will be vanishingly sparse compared with protons in the corona, deuterium-deuterium reactions are unlikely, but the possibility of deuterium-proton to form 3He is possible, I suppose. I think I should do some sums to estimate the likely reaction rates in the corona, but that will have to wait for a few days.

Regarding the length of the paper - I think it is published in conference proceedings, so it is possibly a summary of conference paper. OT, but the shortest high impact paper that I am aware of is Watson and Crick's 1953 Nature publication of the structure of DNA.

Might the linear ‘timing’ of 511 keV and "delayed" 2.223 MeV in solar flare phenomena have relevance to the linear timing of terrestrial lightning? The timing of events is something that lightning research efforts are trying to decipher. These same signatures manifesting at the sun might make for interesting comparison along that line of reasoning.

Perhaps, but the conditions are so different, from density to temperature to elements present, that caution is called for.

Using a CCD camera sensitive to 300-700 nm this team recorded airglow fluorescence of air molecules excited by the Runaway Relativistic Electron Avalanche (RREA) dynamic billed as "the first optical signature of RREA developed in the lower part of the thundercloud" A link is provided to the all sky videos of the recordings.

Despite its simplicity it was a little difficult to follow without referring back and forth to the dynamics portrayed in Fig 1. Figure 1 in this paper treats the thundercloud as a vertical dipole. Most of the document covers measurements related to the lower half of the vertical dipole. This means that the reader has to first split the dipole into upper and lower regions. The middle of the dipole is labeled MN: main negative charge region.

Then, split the lower half of the dipole into two regions again. So, between the middle negative charge region and the surface of the Earth the reader will have:

MN: main negative charge region
LPCR: “emerging lower positively charged layer
TGE: Thunderstorm Ground Enhancements

The red vertical arrows refer to the E-Field vectors for the various regions, the small green clouds in the lower right-hand corner refer to enhancement of naturally occurring gamma radiation from randon progenies which can become airborn due to E-Field. The authors are depicting gamma ray, neutrons, and positron emission both above and below the middle negative charge region (MN).

ABSTRACT
Natural gamma radiation (NGR), one of the major geophysical parameters directly connected with cloud electrification and lightning initiation, is highly enhanced during thunderstorms. At low energies below 3 MeV, the enhancement of NGR is due to natural isotope radiation, and for energies up to 50 MeV, it is due to the operation of the newly discovered electron accelerators in the thunderclouds. For the first time, we present a comprehensive model of the enhanced fluxes of radiation incident on the earth's surface during thunderstorms. In addition to the already explained minute-long fluxes of high-energy electrons and gamma rays from relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREA), we clarify also the origin of hour-long isotropic fluxes of low-energy gamma rays from the Rn-222 progenies. Also, as a direct evidence of RREA, we present photographs of optical emission during the development of electron-gamma ray cascades in the atmosphere. Natural radioactivity is a source of continuous exposure of human beings to radiation. Radiation protection of living organisms requires an understanding of all sources and possible ways of enhancement of the radiation levels that can double for several hours in the energy domain of hundreds of keV. Therefore individual irradiation doses can be exceeded during thunderstorms. The models used for the forecasting of thunderstorms and other severe atmospheric phenomena need an accurate account of the ionizing radiation in the atmosphere. The airglows can influence the operation of optical, fluorescence, and atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes and fluorescence detectors. - Origin of enhanced gamma radiation in thunderclouds: A. Chilingarian, G. Hovsepyan, A. Elbekian et al, 11 December 2019

I've read your interesting advise Higgsy.

On Dec 22nd I said I'd do some sums to estimate the reaction rates in the corona, so here we go. There are many simplifying assumptions (eg I only consider PP I chain, not PP II, PP III or CN), however the orders of magnitude will not be too far off.

The first step of the pp chain is mediated by the weak force and so does not occur readily but once it occurs the deuterium product of the first step will readily react with a proton to form 3He.

Looking at the core of the Sun, say, within ~0.3 solar radius:
Radius of core = 1.75 x 10^8 m
Volume of core = 2.24 x 10^25 m^3
Power output of core 3.9 x 10^26 W
Average density of power output = 17 W.m^-3
But the power output is greatest at the centre and falls to near zero on the edge of the core, so in the centre we can estimate a rate at least 10x the average: 170 W.m^-3
Each pp reaction to 4He releases ~25MeV of energy = 4 x 10^-12 J
Therefore the reaction rate for the first step in the centre is 2 x 4.25 x 10^13 m^-3.s^-1 = 8.5 x 10^13 m^-3.s^-1 (It takes two first step reactions to end in one 4He)

The reaction rate goes as the fourth power of temperature (at least in the temperature region we are interested i), and as the particle density.

The temperature in the centre = 1.5 x 10^7 K
The temperature in the quiet corona = 1 x 10^6 K and in the active corona 3 x 10^6 K. Let's take the latter.
The coronal reaction rate is thus 625 times less than the core on the basis of temperature.

The density in the centre is 1.5 x 10^5 kg.m^-3 of which one in ten nucleons is a unbound proton. So the density of protons is 1.5 x 10^4 kg.m^-3 or 9.4 x 10^30 protons m^-3.
The density in the corona is 10^15 protons m^-3.
The coronal reaction rate goes as (9.4 x 10^30/10^15) = 9.4 x 10^15 times less than in the core on the basis of density.

Therefore, the total rate in the corona is 5.9 x 10^18 less than in the core.

Thus the rate of pp reactions in the corona is 8.5 x 10^13/5.9 x 10^18 = 1.4 x 10^-5 s^-1.m^-3.

If we estimate the depth of the corona to be 50,000km (density drops by almost an order of magnitude by 70,000km) or 5 x 10^7m then its volume is 3.2 x 10^26 m^3 (this is generous as the corona becomes less dense, resulting in lower reaction rate with distance above the surface).

The total pp reactions in the entire corona would therefore be 3.2 x 10^26 x 1.4 x 10^-5 = 4.5 x 10^21 s^-1.
A complete pp chain through all three steps to 4He releases ~25MeV, but in the corona, the last reaction in the pp chain (3He + 3He > 4He + 1p + 1p + 12.8MeV) is unlikely because of the low density of 3He, so each pp chain stops after step 2 (the proton deuterium fusion) and results in a total 6.9MeV or 1.1 x 10^-12J.

The power from the pp chain in the entire corona is therefore ~4.5 x 10^21 x 1.1 x10^-12 = 5 x 10^9W (number of reactions per second times energy per reaction). So fusion in the corona is a completely insignificant part of the Sun's power output.

The power density in the corona is 1.4 x 10^-5 x 1.1 x 10^-12 = 1.5 x 10^-17 W.m^-3 (reactions per second per cubic meter times energy per reaction).

There is an interesting paper which proposes fusion in coronal flares: Ying-Zhi Zhang 2020 Res. Astron. Astrophys. 20 026, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1912.00193.pdf. He models a coronal flare using MHD and then calculates the fusion rate and the contribution of fusion to the heating of the flare. He comes up with a energy production of 3 x 10^-7 J.m^-3 and a total production of 27,000 m^-3 reactions in an event that lasts 9,900s. That is equivalent to 10^-11W.m^-3, which is 6.7 x 10^5 times greater than the number I came up with above as an average for the entire corona. His modelling indicates that the centre of the flare will average over time about 2 x 10^7K and have a density of 1.25 x 10^16 particles m^-3 (cf my assumptions for the average across the corona are 3 x 10^6K and 10^15 particles m^-3 which taken together give a factor in reaction rate of 2.5 x 10^4, so we agree within an order of magnitude or so).

This woud be an explanation for the gamma production, the abundance of 3He and the positron annihilation signature in the corona, particukarly at flares.

Higgs, how are you measuring "density"?