Alfven's "Cosmic Plasma"

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Alfven's "Cosmic Plasma"

Unread post by paladin17 » Sat Feb 01, 2020 1:45 pm

These are my notes on "Cosmic Plasma" (1981) - effectively a short version of the whole book.
The book, I would say, is a must read for any EU/PU investigators and enthusiasts. It is well structurized and well written, relatively easy to understand and contains some crucial ideas and concepts.

Again I encourage you to read my notes on two other books by Alfven at the v2.0 forum: "Cosmical Electrodynamics" (1950) and "Worlds-Antiworlds" (1966) - and one at this forum: "Structure and Evolutionary History of the Solar System" (1975).
Chapter V here contains a brief recap of the latter book, and Chapter VI - of "Worlds-Antiworlds".

Just like previously, I'd make my own comments in italics, while literal quotes from the text would be given in "quotation marks".

_________________________________________


Preface

The book is aimed at a broader public, so simplicity is more important that strictness.

Chapter I. Survey

1. Experimental and Theoretical Approach to Plasma Physics

Two lines of research in plasma physics: experimental (multiple anomalies, hard to describe theoretically); theoretical (extreme oversimplification and unrealistic assumptions).
Birkeland as example of applying the first approach to cosmic plasmas. The second approach prevailed, but only until theoretical results became verifiable ("thermonuclear crisis").
Yet in space the second approach was still the dominant one. Until the measurements in the magnetosphere became possible. This has led to understanding that space plasmas are just as complicated as laboratory plasmas (picture at p. 3).

2. Plasma Phenomena in Laboratory and Space

Non-trivial scaling of plasma (scheme at p. 5).
"... it is essential to design laboratory experiments which simulate cosmic problems".
Scaling laws depend on a formalism that is applicable to passive plasma regions, but might fail in active regions.
"To clarify cosmic plasma phenomena by means of laboratory experiments is very complicated".
Two types of successful experiments: a) pattern simulation (geometrical patterns are modeled - e.g. terrella experiments; need to carefully adjust parameters for proper scaling); b) process simulation (a certain property of plasma itself is studied).
Computer simulation is valuable, but could be misleading.

3. Field and Particle Aspects of Plasma

Dualism between magnetic field and current. Sometimes it is convenient to eliminate the current and use curl B instead. But not always (picture at p. 7). If one introduces permittivity that depends on MHD wave velocity (Alfven velocity), then even the displacement current becomes important.
Without explicit introduction of currents it is impossible to describe: a) energy transfer; b) double layers; c) explosive phenomena (flares, cometary outbursts, magnetic substorms); d) violation of Ferraro corotation; e) plasma filaments; f) current sheets and cellular structure of space.
The book focuses on the electric current description.

4. Present State of the Classical Theory

Magnetic field description may work well for quiescent plasmas, but when the current runs through them, many anomalies appear: a) plasma becomes "noisy"; b) energy distribution becomes non-Maxwellian with excess of higher energy particles (solar wind?..); c) electron temperature is higher than the ion temperature, which is higher than neutral gas temperature, which is higher than electrode temperature (or dust temperature in dusty plasma); d) plasma instabilities arise; e) filamentation appears; f) elements become separated; g) double layers are formed (when electron drift velocity exceed their thermal velocity), which may later explode in a current surge and accelerate the particles; h) above a certain current limit, plasma resistance jumps orders of magnitude ("anomalous resistivity"); i) when beta (ratio of kinetic to magnetic pressure) is around unity, plasma configuration might change (instabilities).

5. Boundary Conditions. Circuit Dependence

The importance of boundary conditions.
"... infinite plasma models, or models with static boundary conditions, are often applied to problems with variable boundary conditions. This gives completely erroneous results".
Not only local parameters are important, but the system as a whole. E.g. in current-carrying plasma the outer circuit also contributes to its behavior. Example with a double layer explosion.
"... the total volume in which the current flows affects the behavior of the plasma at every point".
Sometimes equivalent circuits may be drawn for simplicity.

6. Cosmology and the Origin of the Solar System

It is imperative to stick to data which is accessible from in situ measurements with high quality diagnostics. Speculative theories about phenomena that are impossible to measure directly and which violate the known properties of plasma should not be considered.

7. Aims of the Monograph

Just a summary of the book's goals.

Chapter II. Electric Currents in Space Plasmas

1. Dualism in Physics

Dualism between fields and particles. Sometimes particle phenomena can't be ignored, and magnetic field description fails.
Physics of discharges rests on understanding of particle behavior.
"... magnetic field description is often used in a careless way leading to the neglect of boundary conditions. Infinite models are applied to plasmas with finite dimension, resulting in erroneous conclusions".

2. Particle-Related Phenomena in Plasma Physics

"Seen from the coordinate system of the particle, B is unimportant".

3. Magnetic Field Lines

"... it is meaningless to speak about a translational movement of magnetic field lines".
Against "frozen in" field lines. This concept might be used only when electric field parallel to magnetic field is zero.
In field-aligned currents this is exactly wrong.
It is true if parallel conductivity is infinite, but there are cases when this assessment is not correct. For example: a) mean free path is larger than the scale in which E and B vary; b) drift velocity is equal to sound velocity, so a transfer of energy to sound waves occurs (which causes anomalous resistivity); c) strong electric fields generate fast runaway electrons; d) with a non-Maxwellian velocity distribution a magnetic field gradient generates a parallel electric field (solar wind?..); e) currents produce double layers (sheaths) with discontinuous jumps in voltage.
Criticism of "reconnection".

Example: plasma flow in the magnetosphere (pictures at p. 14). In this example both the magnetic and electric fields are static.
"To ask whether a field line moves or not makes no sense".
Electromagnetic fields in a stationary magnetosphere may be derived purely from a system of charges and currents (so following the "particle" approach).
More criticism of "reconnection".
"There is no need for frozen in field lines moving with the plasma, still less for field line reconnection or magnetic merging" etc.

4. Filaments

There seems to be a continuum of plasma shapes from sheets to filaments. Examples of filaments: a) aurorae; b) "inverted V events" in the magnetosphere; c) "flux ropes" in ionosphere of Venus; d) solar prominences, spicules etc.; e) cometary tails; f) interstellar structures - sometimes explained by shock fronts from novae/supernovae, but also explained by currents (no contradiction, as hydromagnetic shocks should be associated with currents); g) interstellar clouds (nebulae).
Pictures on p. 17-21.
Purely hydrodynamic shear motion cannot explain that and in the most general case is not observed in plasma at all. Ergo, considering these structures as consequence of currents is more preferential.

If voltage drops with rising current density, discharge is likely to become constricted, so the same voltage would supply a more dense current.
Thermal constriction may happen in arc discharges. Usually that means higher pressure.
Currents perpendicular to B may be constricted (auroral/equatorial electrojets).
Other mechanism of constriction is Ampere's force (which leads to pinch effect). Must be important in astrophysics (interstellar matter), and yet is completely neglected there.

Theoretical examination of a pinch. Bennett relation.
Negligible pressure - force-free currents (strictly field-aligned). Such currents are constricted to a cylinder, and at large distances the current is strictly azimuthal - the whole structure is called "magnetic rope".
Contradiction with Don Scott's model again. But at the same time this is exactly what we see in the magnetic field around the heliosphere.
Ropes accumulate the material through e/m attraction. So we see them as filaments.

Marklund: under certain conditions a magnetic rope might be a cylindrical shell. Partially ionized gas mixture + temperature gradient = separation of the elements into concentric cylindrical shells with increasing ionization potential outwards.
So a current through partially ionized plasma produces elemental separation in the general case (picture at p. 26). Magnetic rope acts as an ion pump, concentrating matter and also creating voids. Perhaps coronal holes are produced in this way.

5. Local Plasma Properties and the Circuit

Plasma tube with current in a circuit (picture at p. 27). External circuit is crucial.
"... even if we know all the plasma parameters in the tube ... we cannot predict the behavior of the plasma unless we know the parameters of the circuit of which the plasma is a part".
NB: Resistance of plasma in a circuit is often negative.
"... the behavior of the plasma depends on the outer circuit". Oscillations are possible etc.
If we try to disrupt the current, a release of all inductive energy in the point of disruption will occur. The disruption of current in plasma is often caused by unstable double layers.
Importance of boundary conditions. Only if there's no current through the surface of plasma we might treat it in isolation.
"Invisible" transfer of energy - an example with auroral currents (picture at p. 28).
"In important respects, the transfer of energy in cosmic physics is very similar to the electrotechnical transfer".
Criticism of "reconnection" etc.

6. Electric Double Layers

Double layers - areas of large potential drop some tens of Debye length in size.
E.g. sheaths around the walls or electrodes. Or a double layer between two regions with different electron temperature. When a current increases so much that the drift velocity is equal to thermal velocity, double layer is produced.
Experiments have not yet definitely shown that double layers might form in space (in a laboratory ion Larmor radius is larger than the size of the vessel, whereas in space it is smaller).
Double layers are noisy (oscillate in wide frequency band) and may explode (orders of magnitude increase in voltage - determined by inductance and resistance of the circuit). The explosion continues until the current vanishes, and the energy released is carried away by ions and electrons. E.g. solar flare, magnetic substorm etc.

Behavior of equipotential lines around a double layer. Strong radial electric fields - inward on the low potential side and outward on the high potential side (pictures at p. 31-32). High frequency oscillations - which are sometimes observed in double layers - cause a spread in velocities of particles. Otherwise double layer is a purely electrostatic phenomenon.
Magnetosphere of Earth: magnetic mirroring and auroral currents produce double layers that accelerate electrons (e.g. a typical monochromatic beam of 3 keV energy). Energy released by double layers cannot be explained by magnetic reconnection.
Some double layers may become unstable and disrupt the current, which releases the energy of the whole circuit there. Other plasma instabilities may disrupt the current as well. Consideration of a simple circuit with periodically exploding double layer.

7. Field-Aligned Currents as "Cables"

"Inverted V events" in the lower magnetosphere (up to 1 radius from the surface) - evidence of plasma "cables".
Direct measurement of strong electric fields both parallel and perpendicular to magnetic field.
Perpendicular fields in filamentary structures are needed to equalize the electric potential with the surroundings.
Analogy with a generator (e.g. plasma moving in a magnetic field) and consumer (e.g. double layer or other plasma, receiving the energy) connected by a pair of plasma filaments.
Stellar energy in the Galaxy as a consumer? What's the generator?

8. An Expanding Circuit

Electrodynamic self-action of the current in a loop: tends to physically expand the loop. This force may be balanced by other forces (external pressure or gravity), but it also may lead to actual expansion (rising prominences).

9. Different Types of Plasma Regions

Three types of plasma regions in space:
1) Passive. They transmit waves, particles, transient currents etc. Plasma prefers to keep stuff homogeneous and instead of a slow change of parameters produce two regions with a discontinuous transition between them - a double layer or a current sheet, in case of temperature/density/magnetization difference.
2) Active. Filamentary and current sheets, transferring the energy.
3) Cables. Filaments or truncated sheets, insulated by additional double layers etc. from the surrounding passive plasma. Their density might even be lower than in the surroundings. Besides insulating sheaths around them they may have longitudinal double layers, which may explode.
Examples of cables (aurorae, prominences, nebulae etc.).

Currents in cables are usually small and cannot affect the surrounding magnetic field much. Currents in current sheets, however, are much stronger.
Current sheets in magnetosphere: a) magnetopause (thin layer that may fold several times like an auroral drapery); b) neutral sheet in the tail; c) "bow shock" - a current in front of magnetopause (separates weak solar wind field from stronger Earth's field and transforms solar wind kinetic energy into e/m energy).
Other current sheets - in the heliosphere and other magnetospheres, comets, Venus etc.
Most likely Earth's magnetotail current produces double layers which drive magnetic substorms.

10. Cellular Structure of Space

Current systems are everywhere, and it is almost impossible to detect them remotely. Current sheets are very thin - tens of Larmor radii. Space should have a cellular structure with homogeneous regions separated by current sheets.

11. Fine Structure of Active Plasma Regions

Fine structure of current systems. "Ropes" consisting of smaller wires.

Chapter III. Circuits

1. Importance of Electric Current Models

Description with currents and not magnetic fields is better, because it: a) provides understanding of importance of boundary conditions; b) makes energy transfer clearer; c) contains many important phenomena (e.g. double layers).
We shall use particle description and focus on e/m effects, neglecting gravity, radiation pressure etc. Spitzer formula for conductivity is not applicable and Ohm's law too.
Plasma is almost never "turbulent". Turbulence involves active mixing, and plasma demonstrates the opposite: effective isolation of regions and structure formation. But it is inherently "noisy". And the measured fluctuations might be caused by filamentary structure or by plasma waves.

Three types of currents: a) field-aligned (filamentary, do not obey Ohm's law, produce noisy double layers); b) surfaces where B = 0 (may also produce exploding double layers); c) drifts perpendicular to B (all the drifts except ExB drift produce currents, since they depend on charge sign; inertia drift makes energy transfer between kinetic and e/m components possible).
Three simple problems where transfer of plasma kinetic energy and e/m circuit energy is observed (schemes at p. 45-46).
A "shock" is an inertia surface current.

2. The Auroral Circuits

Auroral currents: Birkeland vs. Chapman.
On the evening side the upward current is in higher latitudes (difference of 5 degrees), on the morning side it's reversed.
Northward currents on the evening side, southward on the morning side. Plus west to east current sheet (picture at p. 50).
All these currents are highly variable, sometimes filamentary etc.
Auroral circuit is fed by plasma kinetic energy in the equatorial plane. Some numerical estimates.

3. Rotating Magnetized Body Surrounded by a Plasma

Picture at p. 52.
If a double layer is established, Ferraro theorem is invalid, as magnetic field lines would be disrupted.
In the heliosphere there is no corotation either, since it is suppressed by the solar wind, so there's only a thin current sheet at the equator.

4. The Heliospheric Current System

Heliospheric currents (pictures at p. 53, 55). If magnetic south is in the north, there is an inward current in logarithmic spirals. If the polarity is reversed, the current flows outwards.
Now finally the consequential cycle magnetic reversals are acknowledged. Compare that to "Cosmical Electrodynamics".
Prediction of the axial current to/from the Sun. In order to produce spiral field lines of the solar wind, additional circular currents are required.
E.m.f. is provided by the Sun (as unipolar inductor). Transfer of angular momentum from the Sun to plasma happens at higher latitudes - cause of differential rotation?
Possible double layers at the axial currents.

Hypothetical galactic circuit (picture at p. 57). E.m.f. is derived from galactic magnetism and rotation.
Double layers at galactic axial currents - possible explanation of double radio sources.
Double layers might be produced when the current flows outwards. Inwards - we still don't know.
Double layers may also exist in the equatorial currents.
"... the energy released in the double layer is transferred to it by electric currents, which essentially consist of relatively low energy particles. There is no need for a beam of high energy particles to be shot out from the central galaxy (and still less for some mysterious "plasmons")".
Galactic currents of the order of 10^17 A and double layers with voltages of 10^16 V.
Other sources of acceleration.

5. Circuits of Magnetospheric Tail, Comets, and Venus

Circuit of the magnetotail (picture at p. 59). Current sheet in the tail itself, plus two current sheets in the solar wind.
E.m.f. is produced by the moving magnetized wind.
Magnetic substorm: tail current sheet is disrupted (by a double layer), and the stored inductive energy forces the current to flow through ionosphere instead (via field-aligned currents). Equivalent substorm circuit (picture at p. 60).
Similar phenomena in cometary tails ("folding umbrella" phenomenon - caused by current disruption).
Current system around Venus (picture at p. 61) - very similar. The difference is higher gravity, so very little outgassing and no actual tail.
"... there should be substorms or folding umbrellas at Venus".

6. Magnetospheric Circuit

Magnetic field of Earth (compared to Venus) splits the current system into front system and tail system and inserts the auroral system in between.
Modeling of the Earth's magnetospheric circuit (pictures at p. 63-67). Northward vs. southward interplanetary field - weak vs. strong coupling to the magnetosphere.
Transfer of solar wind kinetic energy into magnetospheric e/m energy through inertia currents.
Coupling to the solar wind produces: a) sunward plasma drift in the equatorial region; b) deceleration of the solar wind due to inertia currents (magnetosphere acts as an impedance).
Three different circuits, each of which draws solar wind energy through inertia currents: magnetopause, tail (both close through the neutral line) and aurora (maintains the sunward drift and connects the ionosphere to the equatorial region).
This current system modifies the large scale structure of the field and introduces a sunward plasma drift (it is needed to compensate the external electric field).

In the second order approximation more phenomena emerge. Neutral line currents are transformed into current sheets (Dungey effect). Magnetopause current spreads latitudinally, whereas tail current stays confined to the equator.
When the wind encounters the magnetopause current, it develops its own sheet (bow shock) with opposite current direction (picture at p. 69).
The thickness of this sheet is inversely proportional to the amount of wind flow.
Auroral circuit after certain value of current develops double layers which accelerate electrons that produce aurorae.
Tail current sheet may produce double layers which may explode and redirect the current to the ionosphere (magnetic substorm). Perhaps the tail circuit is key in generating aurorae in the first place.
Three ring model of magnetospheric currents (picture at p. 70). Solutions of the model for currents around 10^5 A (picture at p. 72).
"It is evident that the deformation of the terrestrial magnetic field is not due to the solar wind sweeping the field lines with it, but can be accounted for as a result of the current system which the solar wind produces".

7. Other Magnetospheres

Not enough observational data so far.

8. Solar Prominence Circuit and Solar Flares

Typical voltages around 10^9 V and currents around 10^12 A; inductances of 10 H. Stored energy is about 10^23 J.
Double layers in prominence circuit may disrupt the current and produce a solar flare.
Carlqvist's theory of the solar flares - decent agreement with observations.
Alternative theories that attribute current disruption to instabilities (rather than double layers) might also work, but magnetic reconnection cannot.

9. Solar Wind Acceleration

Currents in prominences (picture at p. 75). It seems that the energy is transferred from the solar photosphere to the solar wind by electric currents.

10. Transfer of Energy from the Solar Core to the Aurora

The whole sequence between the photosphere and aurora (scheme at p. 76).
"... confidence in the classical theory has been shaken by the neutrino difficulty".
It would have been interesting to know Alfven's take on coronal holes. He did mention them only once with regards to pinching.

Chapter IV. Theory of Cosmic Plasmas

1. Classical Theory and Its Difficulties

Classical plasma formalism (kinetic theory of gases + electromagnetic interaction) may be misleading if not applied carefully.
Reasons:
a) plasmas are complicated;
b) plasmas are noisy (even calm plasmas become noisy when current runs through them, so e.g. velocity distribution becomes non-Maxwellian);
c) mistakes in geo/astrophysical applications (1. infinte models are applied to finite problems - e.g. current in bow shock is not assumed to close anywhere; 2. it is assumed that magnetic field counteracts plasma contraction, whereas it may actually cause it);
d) general lack of awareness of astrophysicists about plasma physics.
Example with deflecting and flattening plasma beam in a curved magnetic field, which was not predicted by the theory (though can be explained in hindsight) - pictures at p. 80-81.

2. Ionization

"... in many cases most of the ionization of a cosmic plasma is produced by a hydromagnetic conversion of kinetic or gravitational energy into ionizing electric currents".
"Such currents also heat the corona".
"... there is enough ionization to exclude a non-hydromagnetic treatment of star formation".
Transition region between fully ionized plasma and neutral gas is often very thin. In it the neutrals diffuse and get ionized by plasma electrons (picture at p. 83).

3. Cosmic Abundances and Differentiation

Homogeneous "cosmic abundances" vs. chemical differentiation. Research indicates that "there are processes in the solar plasma which produce a chemical separation under pre-flare conditions".
It seems that it is the electric current that produces differentiation (e.g. through formation of magnetic ropes).
Experiments also show that a fully ionized magnetized plasma surrounded by neutral matter would demonstrate chemical separation (elements with high ionization potential are concentrated in plasma, and with low - in the neutral surroundings).
Gravitational drift in plasma also causes separation, as well as some other processes.

4. Turbulence

The existence of large scale turbulence in plasma (e.g. magnetosphere) is excluded. Rather, erratic in situ measurements are caused by inherent plasma inhomogeneities (current filaments etc.) or current fluctuations. It is not turbulence per se.
Moreover, turbulence leads to mixing, whereas plasmas demonstrate the opposite: separation and structure formation.
BTW, SAFIRE plasma does not demonstrate filamentation (?), whereas solar plasma does.
"... magnetic fields give a structure to low density plasmas which suppresses or prevents turbulence".
Fluctuations and hydromagnetic waves would explain the observed irregularities better.
Small scale "turbulence" is possible in plasma, but it's still different from turbulence in regular fluids.

5. Flux Amplification

Three types of current systems in space that produce magnetic fields: a) current loop in a body's interior; b) currents near surfaces (ionosphere, photosphere etc.); c) large scale currents (magnetosphere, heliosphere, comets, galaxies).
Self-exciting dynamos.
NB: Cosmic rays may come from the edge of the heliosphere (or somewhat beyond), and not galaxy as a whole.
Description of an experiment (pictures at p. 88-89). Toroidal magnetic field of a plasma torus might be transferred to poloidal magnetic field (through kink instability in axial current, which turns it into a spiral). This "... may explain the production of a magnetic field in low density plasmas in cosmic physics".
Kink instability theory of cosmic flux generation (picture at p. 90). It is certainly possible in space. Maybe even in planetary interiors.

6. Critical Velocity

Band structure of Solar System bodies in terms of gravitational energy - explained by ionization at critical velocity.
"... a plasma is able to transfer kinetic energy from the ions to the electrons in a number of efficient ways".
Hm, critical velocity is in the 10s of km/s range; I wonder what implications this has for the neutral helium focusing cone.
"... critical velocity plays an important part in the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium".

7. Dusty Plasma

Charged dust in planetary magnetospheres. Dust particles receive negative charge from plasma electrons, which they may later lose. Usually the charge is around 1-10 V, but suprathermal electrons may deliver some kV of charge.
"Sudden changes between a few volts and several thousand volts have often been measured on spacecraft orbiting the Earth".
"... dusty plasmas are very common in space".

8. Formation and Evolution of Interstellar Clouds

E/m forces may be decisive for the formation of cosmic clouds and keeping them together. Magnetic field counteracts the contraction only under very special conditions (e.g. field lines are parallel everywhere).
General solution to cylindrical current problem (pictures at p. 95): a) axial current is zero (only circular currents with homogeneous Bz); b) constant pressure (spiraling current aka Don Scott's current, but without his fictitious reversals); c) axial magnetic field is zero, and pressure at certain radius is zero (classical pinch).

Spiraling current with a finite conductivity would attract matter (if the electric field is antiparallel to the magnetic field, we'd observe repulsion).
Cosmic clouds demonstrate filamentary structure, which indicates on the presence of currents and current sheets. A force-free current neither helps nor prevents contraction. In other cases - if the current is more toroidal than the magnetic field, the pressure is directed outwards; if it's less toroidal - inwards (picture at p. 97).

Galactic current of 10^17-10^19 A may flow in filamentary way through interstellar clouds and help them condense. Currents of 10^12-10^14 A are enough to contract a typical cloud (e.g. Orion nebula).
"The formation and evolution of interstellar clouds may be controlled, or rather is likely to be controlled by electromagnetic effects".

9. Ambiplasma

Ambiplasma - mixture of koinomatter ("regular matter") and antimatter.
Again here we see a hypothetical statement that antimatter reacts to gravitation in the same way as koinomatter, which is not guaranteed.
Energy spectrum of proton-antiproton annihilation (graph at p. 99).
Calculation of lifetime of electron among positrons and vice versa (also proton among antiprotons etc.).
Synchrotron radiation, Bremsstrahlung, neutrinos, gammas etc.
Line broadening - may prevent direct observation of electron-positron annihilation.

Three problems with ambiplasma: a) coexistence of koinomatter and antimatter (made easy by inhomogeneous plasma distribution); b) annihilation as a viable energy source for various phenomena; c) separation of koino- and antimatter.
Separation might be achieved by gravitation + current (picture at p. 103). Analogy with electrolysis.
Pretty effective on scales below 0.1 ly. Other processes of separation.
Ambiplasma as an unstable state that tends to fall apart into isolated regions of matter and antimatter. Further shielding by Leidenfrost's layer.

10. High Energy Phenomena

Cosmic rays up to 10^19 eV energy, solar particles up to 10^10 eV energy.
Particle acceleration mechanisms:
a) varying magnetic fields (temporal variations or spatial inhomogeneities, including plasma waves);
b) potential difference in double layers (including exploding ones);
c) annihilation - "... when an observed redshift is said to be of cosmological origin, the word "cosmological" is used as an euphemism for "supernaturally produced"";
d) gravitation - "In our Solar System, gravitational forces do not seem to be of primary importance in producing high energy phenomena", but "we cannot exclude that it may be of importance in stars, e.g., pulsars, with large escape velocities", and yet "The arguments in favor of such processes connected with black holes are, however, not very convincing. The same can be said even for the arguments supporting the existence of black holes".

Acceleration in an increasing magnetic field (e.g. in a sunspot) - "cygnotron acceleration" (the name of the researcher was Swann). Later renamed into betatron acceleration. Usually needs some field irregularities to transfer the energy to.
The process is used to heat laboratory plasmas. Two approaching magnetic mirrors also cause particle acceleration (Fermi process).
Cosmic rays may not come from the Galaxy, but rather be generated by heliosphere itself.
"It is easily seen that the emitted solar wind energy is enough to accelerate cosmic rays". The concept of "heliospheric cosmic rays".
It is unreasonable to assume that heliospheric or interstellar field is homogeneous. Hence cosmic ray intensity outside of heliosphere may be much smaller than inside (except for particles of very high energies, which indeed may be called "galactic cosmic rays").
Double layers in solar flares may produce particles with tens of GeV of energy.

Chapter V. Origin of the Solar System

1. How We Can Reconstruct Earlier Epochs

"... the conditions at earlier epochs should be treated as extrapolations of the present-day conditions in the magnetospheres (including the heliosphere) and in the upper ionospheres".

2. Sources of Information

At the time of the formation of the Solar System plasma processes were crucial. But later on, when planetesimals were formed, celestial mechanics became more important.
"In the present epoch magnetohydrodynamic effects are not important for the motion of the big celestial bodies (planets, satellites and also asteroids), but are still influencing the evolution of comets".
To understand proto-Solar System we need to study dusty plasma clouds.

3. Impact of Magnetospheric Results

"It is necessary to translate magnetic field models into electric current models in order to understand a number of phenomena which are important for the properties and the evolution of the medium".
Plasma regions: a) active (carry field-aligned currents and neutral line currents, produce heating, transfer energy, generate double layers that accelerate particles); b) passive (currents along field lines are small, may transmit waves and high energy particles that are generated elsewhere; they are much larger than active regions). Taking an average of the two is meaningless.

If a current flows through a plasma cloud, its properties would depend on the whole circuit (including processes taking place "very far away") rather than only in the cloud itself.
"In other words, the boundary conditions are essential".
Very interesting to consider relativistic conditions here. Would time lag cause additional inductance, maybe?..
"If the current through the cloud is part of a general galactic current system ... the cloud may be energized by an e.m.f. located in another part of the galaxy".

Two examples with wrong conclusions: cooling of a cloud due to increased heat losses (the cloud would actually heat up due to increased electric field), "expulsion" of magnetic field from a contracting cloud (magnetic field pattern depends only on current systems and magnetization may stay the same by spending some energy on it).

4. Electromagnetic Effects Aiding the Formation and Contraction of Clouds

Only an assumption of a relatively homogeneous cloud magnetization leads to the conclusion that magnetism counteracts cloud contraction. This assumption is generally not correct.

5. Chemical Differentiation in the Primeval Cloud

Differentiation in plasmas: a) by currents (shells of material with different ionization potential); b) by diffusion at the boundary of different plasma regions; c) mass-dependent differentiation (isotope separation).
"... strong galactic currents are likely to flow in interstellar clouds", hence these clouds would have a cellular structure.
The proto-Sun would be: a) formed from gas around a heavier core; b) magnetized; c) not very hot and perhaps not very dense.

6. Intrinsically Produced Currents

"In the Earth's interior there is a current system which produces the Earth's general magnetic field".
Mechanism - "self-exciting dynamo". The only requirement for it seems to be rotation and energy release in the core.
It seems that proto-stellar clouds should also possess dynamos.

7. Band Structure and the Critical Velocity

Laplacian homogeneous disk model doesn't work. It doesn't explain large mass variations in the Solar System. Nor does it explain the band structure of bodies mapped vs. gravitational potential (pictures at p. 115-117).
But e/m forces and critical velocity phenomenon (ionization after reaching a certain speed with respect to plasma) does explain that.
Prediction of Uranus' ring based on that.
Does Juno orbit inside or outside of Jupiter's ring?

8. Solar System in Formation

Interstellar clouds may be formed and contract by e/m forces (pinch effect), so generally no external trigger (shock waves etc.) is needed. Chemical separation occurs naturally for the same reasons.
The clouds should have filamentary structure. The whole condensation/star formation process may occur much more rapidly with e/m forces than usually assumed with gravitation.
Hydromagnetic vs. Laplacian model of planet-satellite formation. The first explains band structure, transfer of angular momentum, formation of planetesimals for further accretion (graph on p. 121). The second doesn't explain asteroids, comets etc.
Possible observational evidence for forming solar systems - T Tauri stars.

9. Hetegony and the "Hetegonic Principle"

General principle should explain both the formation of planets around the Sun and satellites around planets - hetegonic principle.

Chapter VI. Cosmology

1. The State of Cosmology

Is the Universe finite and homogeneous? Is it Euclidean? Cosmology is a borderland between science and philosophy or even religion.
Olbers' paradox -> homogeneous and infinite Universe is not possible. Charlier - inhomogeneous Universe solves the paradox. Einstein-Friedmann-Lemaitre-Gamow - non-Euclidean Universe solves the paradox. Gamow as a great propagandist of BB hypothesis.
Hubble parameter and Hubble time.
"Euclidean description is valid all the way out to the Hubble distance, ... the observable Universe is much larger than the Big Bang hypothesis claims".

To many people (as Lemaitre himself) BB hypothesis is attractive as a synthesis of astrophysics and religious claims of creation.
BB versus continuous creation. BB is better. But there are other theories. Still, any inconsistent observations are neglected and BB is taken for granted. De Vaucouleurs demonstrated that hierarchical cosmology of Charlier type can work.
If BB cosmology falls, some other theory should take its place. Maybe it would be Klein cosmology (matter-antimatter symmetry).

New results from plasma research (including in situ measurements) need to be incorporated into astrophysics and cosmology.
In particular, the inhomogeneous, cellular structure of plasmas (current sheets, filaments etc.).
Density distribution derived by de Vaucouleurs is far below Schwarzschild limit, so Euclidean cosmology is fine. Homogeneous models are most likely wrong. Instead, what is observed is hierarchical density distribution.

"As no acceptable alternative seems to exist, we interpret the observed galactic redshifts as due to Doppler effect (longitudinal and transverse)".
"If the Hubble parameter is not a constant, this means that a linear extrapolation backward in time does not indicate that at any time the matter in the metagalaxy ( = "Universe") was concentrated in a very small volume".
Instead, a minimum size may be quite large - about 10% of the current size (diagrams on p. 130).
"... until it has been clearly demonstrated that the Hubble parameter really is a constant, the BB hypothesis is not supported by the Hubble expansion".
A hierarchical structure leads to very low average density, so Euclidean description of the Universe is completely adequate.

2. Coexistence of Matter and Antimatter

Klein's symmetric cosmology with equal amounts of koinomatter and antimatter (figure at p. 132).
"... both interstellar space and intergalactic space should in general exhibit a ... cellular structure. However, the size of this structure
is difficult to derive theoretically and impossible to observe directly".
Thus, matter-antimatter symmetry may be satisfied if the Universe contains equal number of cells of matter and antimatter, separated by Leidenfrost layers (picture at p. 134). These layers only need to be about 10^5 km thick.
"... such a layer should be very difficult to discover unless a spacecraft penetrates it".

Some additional considerations (e.g. observations of energetic phenomena) require every galaxy to be matter-antimatter symmetric, and not just having separate galaxies of matter and antimatter.
"... we do not know with certainty whether our closest neighbours in space (for example, alpha Centauri) consist of matter or antimatter".
But the Solar System seems to consist of matter only (picture at p. 135).
Close passing of stars and antistars may lead to interesting phenomena (see below).

Most objections to antimatter in space focus on homogeneous models, which are incorrect.
Other objection is the lack of hard gamma emissions (due to annihilation) - but these can be absorbed by matter/antimatter itself.
Yet another objection is the lack of 0.5 MeV gammas, but these would only be generated by very cool electron-positron mixture, whereas in reality they may have kinetic energy and annihilation would give a continuous spectrum.
Lack of antimatter cosmic rays is also based on certain assumptions.
Isn't there actually antimatter in CR?

3. Annihilation as a Source of Energy

Annihilation is the only known source of energy that may produce Hubble expansion (table at p. 137).
BB cosmology based on Friedmann's model is homogeneous, so doesn't allow any "explosions". So Hubble expansion is just postulated there.
Some energetic objects have been discovered that cannot be explained by nuclear reactions. So it was assumed that the energy is produced gravitationally.
But it might be annihilation instead.
We cannot distinguish koinomatter and antimatter electromagnetically, as they give off the same signals (and there is no independent way of determining magnetic field sign).
Cellular structure and current sheets help to isolate matter from antimatter. Even if solar wind consisted of antimatter, the magnetopause current would deflect it in the same way as now.

If clouds of koinomatter and antimatter would collide, annihilation would produce repulsion between them, and a relatively calm Leidenfrost layer would be established. Other thing may be observed if a solid body (e.g. asteroid) made of matter falls on an anti-star (or vice versa).
"When the solid body hits the photosphere of the star, a burnout takes place in a few minutes. This seems to account for the gamma-ray and X-ray bursts" (pictures at p. 140-141).
Electrons and positrons produced by annihilation should emit synchrotron radiation, which should be observed in radio waves. So gamma ray bursts should be accompanied by those.
"... there should be basically similar much more luminous radio bursts occurring less frequently".
Fast radio bursts?
Other emissions are neutrinos, which may also be found.

A large body falls on an antistar - we get a brief energy spike (minutes) followed by some transient period (100 years), after which a quasi-stationary state of a composite star (ambistar) is established (picture at p. 142).
"... the cylinder of opposite matter will find and equilibrium position near the axis of rotation".
This would produce intense synchrotron radiation from electron-positron annihilation products.

If a whole star falls on an antistar, there is a brief transient period (hours), and after that another type of ambistar is formed (picture at p. 143).
It emits all kinds of stuff near its axis of rotation, forming a very hot polar cap. "The recoil of these particles produces a spin stabilized rocket acceleration of the ambistar".
Depending on the mass ratio of the initial star and antistar, [in very rare cases of equal mass] almost complete burnout is possible, so the acceleration produced by this exhaust might be immense, and almost any kind of redshift is possible, if observed near the axis. If observed away from the axis, however, it would look like a normal star. This is a model of a quasar.

So if we observe an ambistar near the axis, we identify it as quasar and see that it's redshifted. If we observe it away from the axis, we don't even recognize it as quasar. Hence almost no blueshifted quasars "exist".
Therefore, quasars are produced by a collision of a koinostar with an antistar - most likely in the galactic core. Many quasars wouldn't be accelerated much and would have the same redshift as their mother galaxy. So a quasar should be observed as a highly luminous object (though emission is highly anisotropic) with a jet. After the complete annihilation of extra koino-antimatter a quasar would turn into a regular star. This may happen on timescales of, for example, 100 kyr. The scattering of starlight on an electron-positron ambiplasma ejected by a quasar would lead to formation of X-ray background radiation, which is observed.

4. Hubble Expansion in a Euclidean Space

Arp's observation that highly redshifted quasars are sometimes associated with galaxies with low redshift - explained by ambistar rocket acceleration.
Only annihilation may provide such energies. However, these high redshifts should be rare, since they require almost equal masses of parent stars.
This means anyway that quasars should not be included in consideration of Hubble expansion, as their redshift is "not cosmological".

5. A Model for the Evolution of the Metagalaxy

Hubble expansion may have started with a metagalaxy of a size of 0.1 of the current size. The expansion may have been driven by release of gravitational energy or annihilation. But gravitation would not be enough. In case of annihilation, a galaxy of 10^10 solar masses would need to consume one solar mass per year to accelerate to the observed redshifts through annihilation.
Possible properties of proto-metagalaxy (table at p. 150).
Matter-antimatter symmetry can explain gamma ray bursts and background X-ray radiation, whereas BB hypothesis needs additional ad hoc assumptions to do that.
At the same time, heavy elements may be produced in ambistars, whereas BB relies on primordial nucleosynthesis and supernovae.
CMB may be isotropic due to some scattering on shells of matter (that exist around galaxies or supernovae explosions).
X-ray and gamma ray emissions from "black holes" - "It seems that ... annihilation is a more likely energy source".

6. Other Metagalaxies

"A Euclidean cosmology does in principle accept an infinite Universe".
"It is conceivable that a number of metagalaxies together may form a still higher order (which has been called a "teragalaxy") in a hierarchical cosmology".

7. Discussion

Hierarchical Euclidean cosmology has no center, so it's not in any case "pre-Copernican". In fact, it claims that the Universe may be infinite, which is impossible for a more primitive BB cosmology.
See also my video on logical cosmology.

8. Conclusions

Plasma astrophysics needs revision - to acknowledge not only the magnetic field side of things, but also the electric currents.
This should be expanded to larger scale astrophysical problems, and not only the Solar System.
Electric currents, as well as gravity, produce inhomogeneities. So homogeneous astrophysical/cosmological models should be abandoned.
Here inhomogeneous Euclidean models should be enough.
Matter-antimatter symmetry may explain various observed phenomena and fits well with the inhomogeneous cellular picture of space, as well as with the hierarchical picture of the Universe. No new laws of physics seem to be necessary, only plasma behavior - same as in the laboratories.

dren
Posts: 36
Joined: Fri Sep 06, 2019 2:25 pm

Re: Alfven's "Cosmic Plasma"

Unread post by dren » Tue Dec 08, 2020 7:34 pm

I appreciate these Eugene, I don't know how I missed them before. Thanks for the effort.

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