Electric Currents Critical to Star Formation?

[MGmirkin]

EU claims that 99.999% of the universe is plasma. Add gases, liquids and solids to that, and there can't be much "space" left to fill up. Now this is interesting!

Ehm, not exactly. I don't think EU "claims" this (it's not anything particularly 'new'), so much as reiterates and supports the point that others have made rather strongly. And also, more accurately, it would be stated "99.999% of the 'visible matter' in the universe is in the plasma state." A slight difference, but an important one to point out.

IE, what we see in inter-planetary, inter-stellar, and inter-galactic space is generally in the plasma state. That doesn't imply anything about density (how closely packed together the stuff is). IE, just because 99.99% of the 'visible matter' is in the plasma state, does not imply that it is closely packed together, leaving "little room" for anything else. In fact, it's pretty well known that all the inter-[planetary/stellar/galactic] plasmas are extremely sparse. Particles are few and far between, leaving gaping voids between them. But, of what sparse particles we've observed, most are ionized / charged particles.

I think that's the gist of it...

Cheers,
~Michael Gmirkin

[MGmirkin]

After some googling I found this: http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=3147.
He must have written it for this thread and then somehow forgot to post it!

Right on! Great article!

In fact, I've decided this article needs its own topic... So, I've written one just for it.

I've also Dugg It, 'cause I think the scientific community needs to read it, and how!

Cheers,
~Michael Gmirkin

[MGmirkin]

In fact, as I was flipping through Digg's "possibly related" articles I cam across another one. And completely misread the title... I thought it said "Scientific Gasblowing" and referred to getting a degree in it. I thought they were being cheeky. Then I realized I'd misread the title: "Scientific Glassblowing."

I think I've invented a new term! Can we please now refer to all completely idiotic mainstream press releases that appear to be founded on bizarre premises (that are probably wrong) as "scientific gasblowing?" I know it'll come back to bit me in the hindquarters, but it's freaking hilarious so I'm willing to take the risk.

Cheers,
~Michael Gmirkin

[Plasmatic]

free creations of the human mind."

When Einstien said this in his paper he was affirming his acceptance of Kants philosophy as stated by Einstein himself. The same thing proposed by others as arbitrary "conventions" as a method for scientific discovery. A perfect example of how theories and formulas reflect the already existing philosophies of their authors.

[edited "Hume" to "Kant"]

[klypp]

MGmirkin:

IE, just because 99.99% of the 'visible matter' is in the plasma state, does not imply that it is closely packed together, leaving "little room" for anything else. In fact, it's pretty well known that all the inter-[planetary/stellar/galactic] plasmas are extremely sparse. Particles are few and far between, leaving gaping voids between them. But, of what sparse particles we've observed, most are ionized / charged particles.

If you'd told me this four months ago, I wouldn't have lifted an eyebrow. I'd just say: Of course, it's like that. But that was four months ago, before I decided to find out more about this EU thing...Today I'm not so sure!
The link you provided also includes headlines like:
The interplanetary medium is a near-100% plasma
The interstellar medium is a plasma
The intergalactic medium is a near-100% plasma
Just a few more:
Estimates of the filling fraction for ionized particles in the interstellar and intergalactic medium range from a few percent to 100 percent.

Plasma is by far the most common form of matter. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not visible.

Over 99.9% of the universe is made of plasma, including the Sun and all stars, and most of the space in between.

Plasma is overwhemingly the dominant constituent of the universe as a whole... ...Outside the Earth's atmosphere, the dominant form of matter is plasma, and "empty" space has been found to be quite "alive" with a constant flow of plasma.

And then of course, there is the ether. Or maybe it's ethereal plasma?

Oops, better stop here! There's a thunderstorm coming my way. Like I said: Too much plasma around!!!

[Plasmatic]

The link you provided also includes headlines like:
The interplanetary medium is a near-100% plasma
The interstellar medium is a plasma
The intergalactic medium is a near-100% plasma
Just a few more:
Estimates of the filling fraction for ionized particles in the interstellar and intergalactic medium range from a few percent to 100 percent.

Plasma is by far the most common form of matter. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not visible.

Over 99.9% of the universe is made of plasma, including the Sun and all stars, and most of the space in between.

Plasma is overwhemingly the dominant constituent of the universe as a whole... ...Outside the Earth's atmosphere, the dominant form of matter is plasma, and "empty" space has been found to be quite "alive" with a constant flow of plasma.

And then of course, there is the ether. Or maybe it's ethereal plasma?

We are singing the same song...
http://www.thunderbolts.info/forum/phpB ... 6903#p6903

[MGmirkin]

To be clear, I'm talking percentages, as opposed to density. Two different concepts.

In terms of approximated percentages, 99.999% of the matter we can see locally, in the galaxy, inter-galactic space and other galaxies appears to be in the plasma state.

The densities of said materials on the other hand are generally quite sparse.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density#De ... _materials

(Interplanetary medium)

The temperature of the interplanetary medium is approximately 100,000 K, and its density is very low at about 5 particles per cubic centimeter in the vicinity of the Earth; it decreases with increasing distance from the sun, in proportion with the inverse square of the distance.

The density is variable, and may be affected by magnetic fields and events such as coronal mass ejections. It may rise to as high as 100 particles/cm³.

(Interstellar medium)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstell ... hase_model

(Intergalactic space)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergalactic_space

This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized hydrogen, i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the Universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter). It reaches densities as high as 1000 times the average density of the Universe in rich clusters of galaxies.

Obviously, gases are considerably more dense than the near vacuum of space, liquids are generally more dense than gases, solids moreso than liquids.

Anyway, in terms of percentages, yes most of what we see is in the plasma state. In terms of density, most of what we see is just empty space with only a few particles per cubic centimeter. But, yes, the majority of those "few particles" are probably plasma...

That's all I'm sayin'.

~Michael Gmirkin

[StefanR]

Can you write Gasblowing with a pencil???

IPMU Scientists Found Supernovae Are Not Round with an international team and Subaru telescope

Kashiwa, Japan -- An international team has uncovered the shape of core-collapse supernovae. They used the Subaru Telescope to discover that supernovae are not round but rather pencil-like. The result sheds light on actively debated unsolved topics in astrophysics: the explosion mechanisms of supernovae and gamma-ray bursts. The result was published on Science Online.

Massive stars (more than 10 times the Sun) end their lives with a bang. The massive stars' death is triggered by the gravitational collapse of the inner core. The central region becomes superdense by this collapse, leaving a neutron star or even a black hole. Aneutron staris a compact star as massive as the Sun within about 10 km of radius, and a blackhole has such a strong gravitational pull that even light cannot escape. As an outcome of the collapse, the energy of the falling matter is somehowtransferred to the outer part of the star leadinga supernova explosion. However, there has been a big problem in this theory:astrophysicists have not been successful in understanding the detailed mechanismthat turns the collapse into an explosion as we can see in telescopes. In recent years, interesting theories have been proposed to understand the explosion mechanism.The key is to make the collapse not round and the explosion pencil-like like two cannons placed back to back.

Keiichi Maeda of IPMU and his colleagues had predicted theoretically that a line profile of light emitted by oxygen could tell them the shape of expanding materials. Most importantly, they realized that it is possible to judge whether a supernova is round by studying the color(spectrum) of a supernova at late-times, namely 200 days after the explosion (Figs. 1, 2). Then the outer part of the exploded star becomes thin enough so that we can see directly into the expanding core. The light emitted from the expanding oxygen atoms becomes slightly bluer or redder by Doppler effects depending on if the gas is moving towards or away from us. Studying the small change in color of the light, they proposed to determine the shape of the expanding core.

Their result supports recent theoretical scenarios of pencil-like supernova explosion, namely by hydrodynamic instability (i.e., the vibration of the shock waves), or rotation plus a magnetic field. "Also important is", says Maeda, the first author of the paper, "the finding that the deviation from spherical symmetry looks smaller in usual supernovae than in extreme ones associated with gamma-ray bursts." This conclusion is also reported in the same paper. He adds, "And it strongly indicates that the explosion mechanisms of the supernovae linked to gamma-ray bursts and other usual supernovae are intrinsically different." According to him, the team plans to look into more details of individual theoretical scenarios and compare those with the observations. "This is even more challenging than the present study, both in theory and observation. But we believe this is within the reach", says Maeda.

http://www.ipmu.jp/press/20080201-press.html

[MGmirkin]

Can you write Gasblowing with a pencil?

I don't know, let me model it with a supercomputer and I'll get back to you.

*Thinks for a moment*

*Takes out a piece of paper and a pencil and examines both carefully...*

*Writes 'Gasblowing'*

Hmm, yup, guess so...

~Michael Gmirkin

[MGmirkin]

Okay, okay, we probably shouldn't *actually* wave things off dismissively w/o considering them Standard Model inquisitors do. But still, ya' gotta' admit it was a funny Freudian slip... *Wink*

~Michael

[StefanR]

*Writes 'Gasblowing'*

Hmm, yup, guess so...

Indeed, I can see the carbon coming of the tip

The Soot Enshrouded End of a Sun-like Star

Spectra of the central star from the Subaru telescope's High Dispersion Sepctrogrtaph indicates that the sizzling at the star's surface is generating large quantities of carbon. This carbon is a likely ingredient of the dust surrounding the star.

Shedding of material is an integral part of the life of stars. "Although astronomers have been studying the dust and gas surrounding stars of different ages and types, we are only beginning to be able to observe and understand detailed structures such those in BD +303639," says Dr. Koji Murakawa, an astronomer at the Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy. Murakawa adds that "images like these give us precious insight into the last moments in a stars life."

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2004/12/15/index.html

But still, ya' gotta' admit it was a funny Freudian slip... *Wink*

Memories of things long gone, still simmering in the subconscience (making a puff of smoke from the pipe and makes notes)

Near-Infrared Images of M17-SO1
Infrared images of M17-SO1 from the Infrared Camera and Spectrograph on Subaru telescope with adaptive optics. The top half is a near-infrared color composite of K-band (2.1 μm; red), H-band (1.6 μm; green), and J-band (1.3 μm; blue) images. The dust in the gaseous envelope surrounding the star blocks the background light and can be seen in silhouette. Some of the scattered light from the central light escaping from the envelope can be seen in blue above and below the envelope. The bottom half is an image in the 2.166 μm near-infrared hydrogen emission line (Br γ). Only the background has emission at this wavelength, so the detailed structure of the envelope is visible in silhouette. both images have the same filed of view (4.8 arcsec x 7.4 arcsec).

Detailed new images of the starbirth nursery in the Omega Nebula (M17) have revealed a multi component structure in the envelope of dust and gas surrounding a very young star. The stellar newborn, called M17-SO1, has a flaring torus of gas and dust, and thin conical shells of material above and below the torus. Shigeyuki Sako from University of Tokyo and a team of astronomers from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, the Japan Aeorospace Exploration Agency, Ibaraki University, the Purple Mountain Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Chiba University obtained these images and analyzed them in infrared wavelengths in order to understand the mechanics of protoplanetary disk formation around young stars. Their work is described in a detailed article in the April 21, 2005 edition of Nature.


Mechanism for Creating an Near-Infrared Silhouete
Around the Omega Nebula (M17), high-energy radiation from massive stars has created regions of ionized gas. Far from the massive stars, gas is in molecular form and mixed with dust in large clouds. Stars form when gas and dust begin to condense inside a molecular cloud. The research team observed the southwestern area of the Omega Nebula (Figure 3) where a molecular cloud lies in front of ionized gas along our line of sight. Visible light emitted by the ionized gas is blocked by the molecular cloud, but some of the infrared light can pass through, allowing astronomers to take images of what is inside the molecular cloud. In broadband 2.1 μm, 1.6 μm, and 1.3 μm images, protostars also contribute to the infrared light. However, only the ionized background gas emits light at the 2.166 μm emission line of hydrogen so the details of the envelope show up in silhouette in the 2.166 μm images.

The near-infrared observations reveal the structure of the surrounding envelope with unprecedented levels of detail. In particular, observations using the 2.166 emission line of hydrogen (called the Brackett gamma (Br γ) line) show that the envelope has multiple components instead of one simple structure. Around the equator of the protostar, the torus of dust and gas increases in thickness farther way from the star. Thin cone-shaped shells of material extend away from both poles of the star.

The discovery of the multi-component structure puts new constraints on how an envelope feeds material to a protostellar disk forming within its boundaries. "It's quite likely that our own solar system looked like M17-SO1 when it was beginning to form," said Sako. "We hope to confirm the relevance of our discovery for understanding the mechanism of protoplanetary disk formation by using the Subaru telescope to take infrared images with high resolution and high sensitivity of many more young stars.”

Astronomers think that protoplanetary disks surround young stars that are only a million years old. Such stellar newborns are called T-Tauri stars, named after the star T-Tauri in the constellation Taurus. To understand how protoplanetary disks form, astronomers must look further back in a star’s evolution, at objects that are only 100,000 years old. Such protostars are surrounded by an envelope of dust and gas. A disk forms as material in the envelope settles into orbit around the newly formed star. Although studying young stars with envelopes is essential for understanding the process of planet formation, it's also observationally challenging since the envelope itself obscures the process of how it feeds the proto-planetary disk. A simple, direct solution is to look for protoplanetary disks and clouds that are silhouetted by radiation from nearby stars and study the characteristics in near-infrared wavelengths.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2005/04/20/index.html

[StefanR]

New high resolution near-infrared direct imaging of the protoplanetary disk surrounding the star AB Aurigae shows that this planetary nursery is not the comparatively featureless and smooth place that astronomers had once assumed, but a place where gas and dust swirl in a complex spiral pattern. The new observations are part of a project to study the immediate neighborhood of young stars with greater detail than ever before by combining the large 8.2 meter effective aperture of the Subaru telescope with adaptive optics and a coronagraphic imager.
....
When the team observed the star AB Aurigae as part of their project, they were successful in obtaining a direct image of the infrared light of the star reflecting off its protoplanetary disk (Figure 2). Strangely, the disk was not a smooth flat ring, but had a spiral pattern reminiscent of galaxies like the Milky Way. The spiral pattern is complex and cannot be traced by a single line. Analyzing the detailed light distribution of the spiral pattern and taking into consideration the information about the motion of gas in the disks known from previous radio observations, it appears that the spiral arms are trailing behind the direction of motion, as is the case in spiral galaxies (Figure 3). By looking at the disk with the super sharp resolution of 0.1 arcseconds and in infrared wavelengths that are not heavily influenced by material outside the star and the disks, the detailed structure of a protoplanetary disks is finally becoming directly observable.

How can such a spiral structure arise? There are two current theories. One is that the gravitational tug and pull with a companion star causes a spiral pattern. The other is that unevenness in the density of the disk can grow into spiral pattern as the disk rotates, if the disks is massive enough for such a process to occur. In the case of AB Aurigae, there appears to be no companion star, so it is likely that material outside the disk is falling onto the disk and adding mass to the disk (Note 2).

Can planets form from these spiral arms? The answer is unclear. In this case, no planet has been found, nor is there any indirect evidence for a planet. If a planet is present, it is expected to sweep up material in the disk forming a gap in the protoplanetary disk in the shape of a ring. Identifying structures associated with the presence and absence of planets will be an important focal point for future research.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2004/04/18/index.html

A close look at the protoplanetary disk around a young star by two teams of astronomers using the Subaru telescope on Mauna Kea has led to the unexpected discovery of two banana-shaped arcs facing each other. The disk, which surrounds the star HD142527, also shows a gap that could be the tumultuous birthplace of a planet, and an extended arc that could have formed during a recent encounter with a stellar neighbor. This discovery adds yet more variety to the bewildering diversity of protoplanetary disk shapes —ranging from donuts to spirals— that astronomers are finding as they study the birthing grounds of planets around other stars.



Before obtaining these detailed images, astronomers expected to find smooth disks around young stars. Yet, recent observations of disks around the stars GG Tauri and AB Aurigae have changed the picture. GG Tauri has a donut-shaped disk, and the disk around AB Aurigae is distinctly spiral-shaped. HD142527's "banana split" construction now seems to be a variation on the theme of diverse protoplanetary disks.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2006/06/27/index.html

Something weird is happening inside a nearby stellar nursery. An embryonic star is giving off a healthy glow…in X-rays. Like a precocious child, the developing star (protostar) is far too young for that kind of behavior.

The observation marks the first clear detection of X-rays from a nascent yet frigid precursor to a star, called a Class 0 protostar, far earlier in a star's evolution than most experts in this field thought possible. X-rays are produced in space by processes that release a lot of energy and heat. The surprise detection of X-rays from such a cold object reveals that matter is falling toward the protostar core 10 times faster than expected from gravity alone.


This is a slightly wider view of the R Corona Australis star-forming region, this time seen in X-ray energies captured by ESA's XMM-Newton observatory. The six blue sources are protostars, mostly corresponding to the reddish dots seen in figure 1. (The brightest sources are stars outside the view of figure 1.) The Class 0 protostar that Kenji Hamaguchi's team observed in X rays is labeled IRS7B. Although not obviously visible in figure 1, this protostar would be just left of the bright central source in that image. Zooming in on the Class 0 protostar, we see it once more -- this time seen in an infrared waveband lower in energy than that in figure 1.

"We are seeing star formation at its embryonic stage," said Dr. Kenji Hamaguchi, a NASA-funded researcher at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., lead author on a report in The Astrophysical Journal. "Previous observations have captured the shape of such gas clouds but have never been able to peer inside. The detection of X-rays this early indicates that gravity alone is not the only force shaping young stars."

http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/sta ... birth.html

The research group, which includes astronomers from the Purple Mountain Observatory, China, National Astronomical Observatories of Japan, and University of Hertfordshire, UK, explored the region close to the Becklin-Neugebauer object and analyzed how infrared light is affected by dust. To do this, they took a polarized-light image of the object at a wavelength of 1.6 micrometers (the H band of infrared light). Images of the brightness of the object just show a circular distribution of light. However, an image of the light's polarization shows a butterfly shape that reveals details that are undetectable by looking at the brightness distribution alone. (Figure 1) To understand the environment around the star and what the butterfly shape implies, the astronomers created a computer model for comparison (Figure 2), along with a schematic of star formation (Figure 3). These models show that the butterfly shape is the signature of a disk and an outflow structure near the newborn star.

This discovery is the most concrete evidence for a disk around a massive young star and shows that massive stars like the BN object (which is about seven times the mass of the Sun) form the same way as lower-mass stars like the Sun.


Polarization image of the object at a wavelength of 1.6 micrometers (the H band of infrared light). Whiter areas are regions with a larger degree of polarization. The contours superimposed on the image show the brightness distribution of the BN object at the same wavelength. The polarized image has a butterfly shape with its two wings brighter (higher polarization degrees) than in the abdomen (the dark lane). The bright wings represent the outflow cavity walls and the dark lane represents the circumstellar disk. The red lines are the polarization vectors which show the direction of polarization at different locations in the image.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2005/08/31/index.html

Using Subaru Telescope's Infrared Camera and Spectrograph (IRCS), astronomer Toshiya Ueta and his colleagues from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign have detected structures resembling "bullets" and "horns" in the gas and dust surrounding an aging star called AFGL 618. This is the first detection of these structures in the near-infrared (the wavelength region beyond the reddest light humans can see). The high resolution and sensitivity of the Subaru data bring new detail to our understanding of the complex processes that accompany the aging of a low-mass star like our own Sun.

AFGL 618 is a popular subject of study among astronomers as a prime example of a very young bipolar planetary nebula. The name "planetary nebula" can be misleading, since planetary nebulae have nothing to do with planets, but instead consist of an aging star and an envelope of gas and dust which this star has ejected. AFGL 618 is called a bipolar planetary nebula because its nebulosity appears to have two preferred directions. It was along these directions that the team of astronomers found the bullets and horns. The "bullets" are the three dot-like structures at the end of the lobe to the right (the top most dot is very faint), and the "horns" are the two elongated structures at the end of the lobe to the left. The cinch in the middle of the structure is called a "dust waist" and is caused by dust grains obscuring our view to the central star.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/2002/09/index.html

L1551-IRS5, which is about 450 light years away from the Earth, is believed to be a binary system consisting of two protostars. (A protostar is a cloud of gas which is collapsing prior to starting nuclear fusion at its core.) This picture shows two parallel jets (green) being emitted from a nebula (white, located slightly left of center), within which the protostars are located. Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope had previously revealed the two jets. However, the high resolution of the Subaru Telescope has allowed them to be separated from the ground for the first time. Analysis has revealed that the jets emit strongly in light produced by ionized iron. The jets are thought to be produced separately by each of the protostars, and extend for about 1500 AU. (1 AU, or Astronomical Unit, is the distance between the Earth and the Sun: 93 million miles or 150 million km.) The white nebula is called an ``infrared reflectance nebula'', and it emits by reflecting strong infrared light from the protostars. In addition, a strong wind from the protostars blows ambient material away and evacuates a cavity around the jets, and the edge of this cavity also reflects light from the protostars. Jets are thought to be produced on both sides of a protostar; in the case of L1551-IRS5, we can only see the jets pointed towards us because the oppositely-directed jets are hidden by intervening, dusty material.

http://www.naoj.org/Pressrelease/1999/08/index.html

[Solar]

Something weird is happening inside a nearby stellar nursery. An embryonic star is giving off a healthy glow…in X-rays. Like a precocious child, the developing star (protostar) is far too young for that kind of behavior.

The observation marks the first clear detection of X-rays from a nascent yet frigid precursor to a star, called a Class 0 protostar, far earlier in a star's evolution than most experts in this field thought possible. X-rays are produced in space by processes that release a lot of energy and heat. The surprise detection of X-rays from such a cold object reveals that matter is falling toward the protostar core 10 times faster than expected from gravity alone. - Baby Star is Way Ahead of its Time

I'll take a healthy TPOD over this explanation any day.

[StefanR]

Yes indeed Solar. I found the most ominous sentence in the whole article :

The detection of X-rays this early indicates that gravity alone is not the only force shaping young stars."

Now the question for the mainstreamers might be : how will dark matter produce x-rays?

[FS3]

Watch this abstract! Now they are claiming that stars CAN FORM around Black ’oles...

But only around those "supermassive" ones.

How?

Their computer told ’em...

Star Formation Around Supermassive Black Holes

I. A. Bonnell1* and W. K. M. Rice2
The presence of young massive stars orbiting on eccentric rings within a few tenths of a parsec of the supermassive black hole in the galactic center is challenging for theories of star formation. The high tidal shear from the black hole should tear apart the molecular clouds that form stars elsewhere in the Galaxy, and transport of stars to the galactic center also appears unlikely during their lifetimes. We conducted numerical simulations of the infall of a giant molecular cloud that interacts with the black hole. The transfer of energy during closest approach allows part of the cloud to become bound to the black hole, forming an eccentric disk that quickly fragments to form stars. Compressional heating due to the black hole raises the temperature of the gas up to several hundred to several thousand kelvin, ensuring that the fragmentation produces relatively high stellar masses. These stars retain the eccentricity of the disk and, for a sufficiently massive initial cloud, produce an extremely top-heavy distribution of stellar masses. This potentially repetitive process may explain the presence of multiple eccentric rings of young stars in the presence of a supermassive black hole.

1 Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St. Andrews, North Haugh, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9SS, UK.
2 Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK.

Full article at:
http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ... 2008/822/2

Excerpt:

The simulation is a "breakthrough," says astronomer Mark Voit of Michigan State University in East Lansing, because it helps explain why those massive young stars around the Milky Way's center follow such elongated orbits. It "addresses one of the big open questions in astrophysics," adds Volker Bromm, an astrophysicist at the University of Texas, Austin.

Helps explaining? What? Neglecting electricity?

Sag-A: Pinch effect in the middle of a center-vortex of an electric machine....
Star formation, included...

FS3